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Syed Ahmad Khan

Indian reformer and public activist (1817–1898)

Not to be muddled with Syed Ahmad Barelvi.

Sir Syed Ahmad KhanKCSI, FRAS (17 Oct 1817 – 27 March 1898), also spelled Sayyid Ahmad Khan, was an Indian Muslim reformer,^[1]^[2]^[3]philosopher, and educationist^[4] in nineteenth-century Nation India.^[5]^[6]

Though initially espousing Hindu–Muslim agreement, he later became the spearhead of Muslim nationalism in Bharat and is widely credited on account of the father of the two-nation theory, which formed the rationale of the Pakistan movement.^[1]^[7]^[8]^[9]^[10]^[11] Intrinsic into a family with irritating ties to the Mughal have a shot, Ahmad studied science and grandeur Quran within the court.

Subside was awarded an honorary LLD from the University of Capital in 1889.^[12]^[9]^[6]

In 1838, Syed Ahmad entered the service of Take breaths India Company and went operate to become a judge pseudo a Small Causes Court answer 1867, retiring from this bid in 1876. During the Asian Mutiny of 1857, he remained loyal to the British Raj and was noted for climax actions in saving European lives.^[1]^[2] After the rebellion, he pen the booklet The Causes bargain the Indian Mutiny – fine daring critique, at the leave to another time, of various British policies meander he blamed for causing representation revolt.

Believing that the coming of Muslims was threatened close to the rigidity of their received outlook, Sir Ahmad began help Western–stylescientific education by founding up to date schools and journals and arrangement Islamic entrepreneurs.^[13] Victoria School draw off Ghazipur in 1863, and uncomplicated scientific society for Muslims establish 1864.^[14] In 1875, founded interpretation Muhammadan Anglo-Oriental College, the pass with flying colours Muslim university in Southern Asia.^[15] During his career, Syed over called upon Muslims to loyally serve the British Raj snowball promoted the adoption of Sanskrit as the lingua franca get a hold all Indian Muslims.

Syed criticized the Indian National Congress.^[1]

Sir Syed maintains a strong legacy blessed Pakistan and among Indian Muslims. He became a source search out inspiration for the Pakistan Current and its activists, including Allama Iqbal and Muhammad Ali Statesman. His advocacy of Islam's positivist tradition, and a broader, elemental reinterpretation of the Quran consent to make it compatible with body of laws and modernity, continues to emphasis the global Islamic reformation.^[16] Multitudinous universities and public buildings principal Pakistan bear Sir Syed's name.^[17]Aligarh Muslim University celebrated Sir Syed's 200th birth centenary with unwarranted enthusiasm on 17 October 2017.^[18]^[19]

Early life

Do not show the visage of Islam to others; in place of show your face as justness follower of true Islam seeking character, knowledge, tolerance and piety.
— Sir Syed Ahmad Khan

Syed Ahmad Taqvi 'Khan Bahadur' was born worth 17 October 1817 to Syed Muhammad Muttaqi^[20] and Aziz-un-Nisa^[21] pin down Delhi, which was the money of the Mughal Empire at near the reign of Mughal EmperorAkbar II.

Many generations of coronet family had been highly abutting with the Mughal administration. Circlet maternal grandfather Khwaja Fariduddin served as Wazir in the retinue of EmperorAkbar Shah II.^[22] Monarch paternal grandfather Syed Hadi Jawwad bin Imaduddin held a mansab (lit.

General) – a elevated administrative position - and influence honorary name of "Mir Jawwad Ali Khan" in the have a stab of EmperorAlamgir II. Sir Syed's father, Syed Muhammad Muttaqi, was personally close to EmperorAkbar Nucifrage of nuremberg II and served as fillet personal adviser.^[23] However, Syed Ahmad was born at a put on ice when his father was join in in regional insurrections aided explode led by the East Bharat Company, which had replaced probity power traditionally held by probity Mughal state, reducing its chief to a figurehead.

Syed Ahmad was the youngest of connect siblings. With his elder fellow-man Syed Muhammad bin Muttaqi Caravanserai and elder sister Safiyatun Nisa,^[24] Sir Syed was raised nickname the house of his careful grandfather in a wealthy globe of the city.^[25] They were raised in strict accordance handle Mughal noble traditions and they were exposed to politics.

Their mother Aziz-un-Nisa played a developmental role in Sir Syed's dependable life, raising him with burdensome discipline and a strong stress on modern education.^[26]

Education

Sir Syed's care was initiated by Shah Ghulam Ali, his father's spiritual adviser in 1822.^[27] He was categorical to read and understand representation Qur'an by a female master Areeba Sehar.^[28] He received program education traditional to Muslim peers in Delhi.

He attended uncluttered maktab run by a intellectual scholar, Moulvi Hamiduddin, in organized house adjacent to his patrimonial home and started learning Farsi and Arabic.^[29] He read class works of Muslim scholars tell writers such as Sahbai, Zauq and Ghalib.^[30] Other tutors intelligent him in mathematics, astronomy slab algebra.

He also pursued goodness study of medicine for a handful years under Hakim Ghulam Haider Khan.^[29] Sir Syed was very adept at swimming, shooting instruct other sports.^[31] He took stop up active part in the Mughal court's cultural activities and abounding parties, festivals and recitations.^[32]

Syed Ahmad's elder brother launched a tabloid, “Syedul Akhbar”, from Delhi, which was one of the early Urdu newspapers in northern India.^[33] Until the death of emperor father in 1838, Sir Syed had lived a life sample for an affluent young Islamic noble.

Upon his father's swallow up, he inherited the titles attention to detail his grandfather and father unthinkable was awarded the title fall foul of Arif Jung by the saturniid Bahadur Shah Zafar.^[34] Financial liable put an end to Sir Syed's formal education, although significant continued to study in personal, using books on a classify of subjects.^[32]

Career

Having recognized the wobbly decline in Mughal political ambiguity, Sir Syed decided to connect with the service of the Chow down India Company.

He could cry enter the colonial civil let because it was only concern the 1860s that Indians were admitted. His first appointment was as a Serestadar (lit. Clerk) of the Criminal Department crate the Sadr Amin's office identical Delhi, responsible for record-keeping topmost managing court affairs.^[34]^[35] In Feb 1839, he was transferred come into contact with Agra and promoted to rendering title of Naib Munshi qualify deputy reader in the divulge of the Commissioner.^[36] In 1841 he was appointed as depiction Munsif or Sub-Judge of Fatehpur Sikri and later transferred near Delhi in 1846.^[36] He remained in Delhi until 1854 prep also except for for two short-term postings endorsement Rohtak as officiating Sadr Amin in 1850 and 1853.^[37] Coop 1855 he was promoted resume the post of Sadr Amin in Bijnor.^[38]

Acquainted with high-ranking Country officials, Sir Syed obtained seat knowledge about British colonial diplomacy during his service at grandeur courts.

At the outbreak divest yourself of the Indian rebellion, on 10 May 1857, Sir Syed was serving as the chief payment officer at the court tight spot Bijnor.^[38] He stood by honourableness British officers of Bijnor direct saved the lives of indefinite officers and their family men and women from the revolting soldiers.^[38] Picture conflict had left large amounts of civilians dead.

Erstwhile centres of Muslim power such pass for Delhi, Agra, Lucknow and Kanpur were severely affected. He gone several close relatives who athletic in the violence. Although proscribed succeeded in rescuing his local from the turmoil, she correctly in Meerut, owing to nobleness privations she had experienced.^[39]

In 1858, he was appointed as Sadarus Sudoor, a high-ranking post administrator the court in Muradabad, veer he began working on queen most famous literary work, The Cause of the Indian Revolt.^[40] In 1862, he was transferred to Ghazipur, and later confront Aligarh in 1864.

In 1864 he was sent to Banaras and elevated to the character of a Sub-Judge of Stumpy Causes.^[40]

In April 1869, he attended his two sons Syed Hamid and Syed Mahmood to England, the latter had obtained uncluttered scholarship to study in England.^[41]

Sir Syed retired from government servicing in 1876 and settled bear hug Aligarh.^[42] In 1878, he was nominated as an additional shareholder of the Imperial Legislative Parliament, which he served from July 1878 to July 1880.

Elegance also served a second impermanent that lasted until 1883.^[43] Elegance served the Legislative Council familiar the Lieutenant Governor of character North- Western Provinces for digit terms from 1887 until 1893.^[44]

Influences

Sir Syed's early influences were top mother Aziz-un-Nisa and maternal old codger Khwaja Fariduddin both of whom took special interest in ruler education.^[45] Apart from serving in the same way a Wazir in the Mughal court, Khwaja Fariduddin was additionally a teacher, mathematician and astronomer.^[25] He was also disposed reputation Sufism, which left its coercion on Sir Syed since king early childhood.^[46] His maternal Khwaja Zainuddin Ahmad, who was an expert in music pole mathematics, also influenced him transparent his early days.^[47]

Sir Syed's inauspicious theological writings demonstrate the capacity of three school of pious thought on his outlook - the Naqshbandi tradition of Mistress Ghulam Ali Dahlavi, Shah Waliullah Dehlawi and his teachings, innermost the Mujahidin movement of Syed Ahmad Barelvi and his early disciple Shah Ismail Dehlvi.^[46]^[48] From the past Sir Syed shared the require for religious forms in Bharat with the Mujahidin movement, subside was opposed to the Asian Wahhabi movement.^[49]

During his formative length of existence in Delhi he came steadily contact with Ghalib and Zauq whose exquisite style of expository writing and poetry influenced Sir Syed's style of writing.^[50] He would often visit Imam Baksh Sahbai and Sadruddin Khan Azurda Dehlawi in his learning years.^[51] In the opposite direction influence on him was cap teacher and friend in Metropolis, Nur al Hasan of Kandhala, a teacher in Arabic contention Agra College in the specifically 1840s who encouraged and disciplined his early works.^[52]^[53]

He was as well influenced by the works illustrate the Tunisian reformer Hayreddin Authority and adopted his approach out-and-out utilising freedom of expression complete bringing reforms in the Monotheism community.^[54]

The western writers who extremity influenced his political thoughts were the Utilitarians such as Bathroom Stuart Mill, whose works earth often quoted in his join in writings.^[55] He was also pretentious by the essays of Patriarch Addison and Richard Steele near modelled his own journals name their Tatler and Spectator.^[55]

Literary works

While continuing to work as skilful junior clerk, Sir Syed began focusing on writing, from say publicly age of 23 (in 1840), on various subjects (from workings to educational issues), mainly pride Urdu, where he wrote, shakeup least, 6000 pages.

He further wrote a well known accurate on archaeology called Athar-ul-Sandeed. Put your feet up also developed interest in data as he met a intermittent of India's well known writers.^[56]^[57]

Religious works

Sir Syed Ahmad Khan's job as an author began in the way that he published a series brake treatises in Urdu on pious subjects in 1842.

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In his early churchgoing writings his religious thoughts were more orthodox; over time, swing at his increasing contact with nobility West, his views gradually became more independent.^[58] His early factory show the influence of Mysticism and his upbringing in Delhi.^[59] The main themes of these works are popularization of character practices of the Islamic forecaster Muhammad as the one work out path and the desire watchdog reform the lives of Asian Muslims from religious innovations, so endeavoring for the purity apparent Islamic belief in India.^[60]^[59]

His consequent religious writings, such as fulfil commentary on the Torah humbling Gospel and his essays aficionado Muhammad, were stimulated in reaction to Christian missionary activities expect India and the aggressive parade of British historians towards Islam.^[54]

Early treatises

His first treatise published cut down 1842 was a biographical parody of Muhammad, called Jila al-Qulub bi Zikr al-Mahbub (Delight unravel the Hearts in Remembering representation Beloved),^[61] in line with rank reformist ideas of Shah Waliullah.^[62] It was prose for 1 on Mawlid written in native Urdu.^[63] He published his subordinate treatise Tuhfa-i Hasan (The Volume to Hasan) in 1844 whole the encouragement of his comrade Nur al Hasan.^[52] It task an Urdu translation of honesty tenth and twelfth chapter manipulate Shah Abdul Aziz Dehlavi's Tuhfah-i Ithna Ashariyya (A treatise suppose the 12 Imams), which was a critique of Shia beliefs.^[62]^[64] The tenth chapter deals enjoin answers the Shia accusations at daggers drawn the Sahabi and Hazrat Aisha and the twelfth deals succeed the Shia doctrines of tawalli and tabarri.^[65]

His third treatise, powerful Kalimat al-Haqq (The True Discourse), was published in 1849.^[64] Vehicle is a critique of rank prevalent Sufi practices around pir–murid relationships.^[66] The first part marketplace the work is devoted consent the concept of piri.

Comport yourself this part, he argues lose concentration Muhammad is the only sketch pir. The work's second end is focused on muridi talented the notion of bay'ah.^[67] Subside calls for reforms in righteousness pir-murid relationship and the corresponding practises.^[68]Rah i Sunna dar radd i Bid'a (The Sunna ride the Rejection of Innovations), crown fourth treatise, was published inlet 1850.^[69] In this work, fiasco expressed his opposition to trustworthy religious practices and beliefs look up to his fellow Muslims, which take action felt were mixed with revolution and deviated from the faithful Sunnah.^[70] In 1852 he promulgated Namiqa dar bayan masala tasawwur-i-Shaikh (A Letter Explaining the Instructional of tasawwur i shaikh), barge in which he defended tasawwur-i-Shaikh, significance Sufi practice of visualizing favoured, the image of one's unworldly guide.^[66]^[71] In 1853 he translated some passages of al-Ghazali's Kimiya al Sa'ada (The Alchemy flawless Happiness).^[69]

Commentary of the Torah stomach Gospel

In 1862 while stationed parallel Ghazipur, Sir Syed started essential on a commentary on primacy Bible and its teaching, stay the aim to explain them in terms of Islam.^[72] Curb was published in Urdu ground English in three parts spread 1862 to 1865 under depiction title Tabin al-al-kalam Fi tafsir altawrat Wa ‘I-injil’ala millat get Islam (Elucidation of the Planet in Commentary of the Laws and Gospel According to glory Religion of Islam).^[73]^[74] While righteousness first part deals with honourableness Islamic approach towards biblical facts, the second and third fundamental nature contains commentary on the Tome of Genesis and the Certainty of Matthew respectively.^[75]

Essays on rectitude Life of Muhammad

In 1869 subside wrote Al-Khutbat al-Ahmadiya fi'l Arabian wa'I Sirat al-Muhammadiya (A Broadcast of Essays on the Taste of Prophet Muhammad and Subjects Subsidiary Therein) as a retort to William Muir's widely mask four-part book, The Life be partial to Mahomet published in 1864.^[76] Sand was deeply distressed by Muir's portrayal of Islam and depiction character of Muhammad.

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Proscribed was concerned that the spot on might create doubts among class younger generation of Muslims.^[77] Vibrate order to prepare for depiction book, he accompanied his boy to England, as he required to get a first-hand sense of Western civilisation.^[78]

He was besides a reader of Darwin concentrate on, while not agreeing with be at war with of his ideas, he could be described as a identification of theistic evolutionist like consummate contemporary Asa Gray.

Syed Ahmad was one of the premier in the Islamic world design adopt this view. His thinking in favour of the given were based on both nous from his own scientific evaluation and quotes from earlier Islamic scholars like Al-Jahiz, Ibn Khaldun and Shah Waliullah.^[79]

Tafsir-ul-Quran

Sir Syed in operation working on a tafsir, tendency commentary on the Quran, strike home 1877.

It was published significance Tafsir ul-Quran in seven volumes; the first volume appeared etch 1880 and the last jotter was published six years astern his death in 1904.^[80] Drain liquid from this work, he analysed challenging interpreted 16 paras and 13 surahs of the Quran.^[80] Link with the first volume, he extremely included a detailed article called Tahrir fi Usool al-Tafsir (The Notes on the Principles give a miss Commentary), in which he set down 15 principles on which he based his commentary.^[81]

Historical works

History was Sir Syed's preferred piece of study and in 1840, Sir Syed compiled a picture perfect of chronological tables about magnanimity Timurid rulers of Delhi give birth to Timur to Bahadur Shah Zafar at the behest of Parliamentarian N.

C. Hamilton, his sponsor. It was later published subordinate to the title Jam-i-Jum (Jamshed's Cup).^[82] In Silsilat-ul-Mulk he compiled justness biographical data of all high-mindedness rulers of Delhi in history.^[83] During his stay in Bijnor, he wrote a history disperse the city of Bijnor, however it was destroyed during authority 1857 rebellion.^[84] He also wrote critical editions of books become visible Ziauddin Barani's Tarikh-e-Firoz Shahi publicized in 1862,^[85] and Tuzk-e-Jahangiri promulgated in 1864.^[86] However, his ascendant important historical works that profanation him fame as a bookworm were the two editions be a witness Asar-us-Sanadid and that of glory Ain-e-Akbari.^[87]

Asar-us-Sanadid

In 1847, he published high-mindedness book Asar-us-Sanadid (The Remnants provision Ancient Heroes) documenting antiquities methodical Delhi dating from the gothic antediluvian era.^[88] The work is bifurcate into four sections: the extreme describes the buildings outside description city of Delhi; the in the second place describes the buildings around distinction Delhi Fort; the third describes the monuments in Shahjahanabad; courier the last section presents deft brief historical account of magnanimity various settlements of Delhi^[88] owing to well as the prominent people of Delhi, including Sufis (such as Shah Ghulam Ali prep added to Saiyid Ahmad Shahid), physicians, scholars, poets, calligraphers, and musicians.^[89] Lack of confusion also contained around 130 illustrations drawn by Faiz Ali Caravansary and Mirza Shahrukh Beg, which were the first lithographically not fail book illustrations in India.^[90] Syed Ahmad released the second demonstrate of Ansar-as-Sanadid in 1854.^[91] But, the second edition was at bottom different from the first – the second was abbreviated allow more factual.^[92] This work out Sir Syed a wider renown and earned him the honest of a cultured scholar.^[93] Imprison 1861, it was translated gain French by Gracin de Tassy in Paris.^[88] The book was also presented to the Be in touch Asiatic Society of Great Kingdom and Ireland in London, which made him an honorary fellow.^[86]

Ain-e-Akbari

In 1855, he finished his learned, and illustrated edition of Abul Fazl's A'in-e Akbari.

The leading and the third volume a mixture of the work were both obtainable in 1855. The second manual, sent to the publisher get 1857, was destroyed in depiction rebellion that took place make certain year.^[94] Having finished the disused to his satisfaction, and believing that Mirza Asadullah Khan Ghalib was a person who would appreciate his labours, Syed Ahmad approached the great Ghalib uncovered write a taqriz (in greatness convention of the times, wonderful laudatory foreword) for it.

Ghalib obliged, but what he sincere produce was a short Farsi poem castigating the A'in-e Akbari, and by implication, the kinglike, sumptuous, literate and learned Mughal culture of which it was a product. The least deviate could be said against inventiveness was that the book confidential little value even as have in mind antique document.

Ghalib practically reprimanded Syed Ahmad Khan for homicide his talents and time take note of dead things. Worse, he unfading sky-high the "sahibs of England" who at that time reserved all the keys to grapple the a’ins in this world.^[95]

Sir Syed Ahmad Khan never take up again wrote a word in elevate of the A'in-e Akbari spell in fact gave up winsome an active interest in earth and archaeology.

He did put in another two historical texts bulk the next few years, on the contrary neither of them was anything like the A'in: a chasmal and triumphalist document on goodness governance of Akbar.^[96]

Political works

During loftiness uprising of 1857, Sir Syed was posted as a important assessment officer at the press one`s suit with in Bijnor.^[97] He recorded illustriousness history of the mutiny sketch Tarikh i Sarkashi-ye Bijnor (History of the Bijnor Rebellion), which was published in 1858.^[98] Be active was deeply worried about prestige consequences of the mutiny keep watch on his fellow Muslims in particular.^[97] He wrote a number acquire articles and pamphlets such although Asbab-e-Baghawat-e-Hind (The Causes of nobleness Indian Revolt), Loyal Muhammadans decelerate India, and Review on Dr Hunter's Indian Musalmans: Are They Bound in Conscience to Mutiny Against the Queen? to keep safe Muslims and Islam and originate a cordial relations between rectitude British authorities and the Islamist community.^[99]

Causes of the Indian Revolt

Sir Syed supported the East Bharat Company during the 1857 mutiny, a role which has anachronistic criticised by some nationalists specified as Jamaluddin Afghani.

In 1859 Sir Syed published the brochure Asbab-e-Baghawat-e-Hind (The Causes of depiction Indian Revolt) in Urdu weight which he studied the causes of the Indian revolt. Valve this, his most famous duct, he rejected the common belief that the conspiracy was ready by Muslim elites, who resented the diminishing influence of Mohammedan monarchs.

He blamed the Chow down India Company for its belligerent expansion as well as rectitude ignorance of British politicians respecting Indian culture. Sir Syed considered the British to appoint Muslims to assist in administration, email prevent what he called ‘haramzadgi’ (a vulgar deed) such orangutan the mutiny.^[100]

Maulana Altaf Hussain Hali wrote in the curriculum vitae of Sir Syed that:

"As soon as Sir Syed reached Muradabad, he began to record the pamphlet entitled The Causes of the Indian Revolt (Asbab-e-Baghawat-e-Hind), in which he did government best to clear the community of India, and especially representation Muslims, of the charge waning Mutiny.

In spite of nobility obvious danger, he made spruce courageous and thorough report pay the accusations people were fabrication against the Government and refused theory which the British challenging invented to explain the causes of the Mutiny."^[101]

When the be anxious was finished, without waiting support an English translation, Sir Syed sent the Urdu version philosopher be printed at the Mufassilat Gazette Press in Agra.

Favourable a few weeks, he everyday 500 copies back from say publicly printers. One of his body warned him not to letter the pamphlet to the Brits Parliament or to the Management of India. Rae Shankar Das, a great friend of Sir Syed, begged him to fashionable the books rather than butt his life in danger.^[98] Sir Syed replied that he was bringing these matters to say publicly attention of the British mix the good of his wind up people, of his country, dispatch of the government itself.

Explicit said that if he came to any harm while knowledge something that would greatly lure the rulers and the subjects of India alike, he would gladly suffer whatever befell him. When Rae Shankar Das aphorism that Sir Syed's mind was made up and nothing could be done to change escort, he wept and remained noiseless.

After performing a supplementary petition and asking God's blessing, Sir Syed sent almost all high-mindedness 500 copies of his complimentary to England, one to honourableness government, and kept the restore your form himself.

When the government virtuous India had the book translated and presented before the senate, Lord Canning, the governor-general, nearby Sir Bartle Frere accepted constrain as a sincere and conservational report.

The foreign secretary Cecil Beadon, however, severely attacked prospect, calling it 'an extremely perversive pamphlet'. He wanted a justifiable inquiry into the matter distinguished said that the author, unless he could give a passable explanation, should be harshly dealt with. Since no other associate of the Council agreed corresponding his opinion, his attack plainspoken no harm.^[102]

Later, Sir Syed was invited to attend Lord Canning's durbar in Farrukhabad and exemplar to meet the foreign confidant there.

He told Sir Syed that he was displeased change the pamphlet and added go off if he had really difficult to understand the government's interests at detail, he would not have easy his opinion known in that way throughout the country; significant would have communicated it round the houses to the government. Sir Syed replied that he had nonpareil had 500 copies printed, primacy majority of which he locked away sent to England, one confidential been given to the create of India, and the abiding copies were still in authority possession.

Furthermore, he had magnanimity receipt to prove it. Inaccuracy was aware, he added, prowl the view of the rulers had been distorted by influence stress and anxieties of depiction times, which made it gruelling to put even the about straightforward problem in its readily understood perspective. It was for that reason that he had yell communicated his thoughts publicly.

Prohibited promised that for every fake that could be found common knowledge in India he would alone pay 1,000 rupees. At extreme, Beadon was not convinced remarkable asked Sir Syed over unthinkable over again if he was sure that no other replica had been distributed in Bharat. Sir Syed reassured him heave this matter, and Beadon not at all mentioned it again.

Later let go became one of Sir Syed's strongest supporters.

Many official translations were made of the Sanskrit text of The Causes defer to the Indian Revolt. The single undertaken by the India Authorize formed the subject of visit discussions and debates.^[103] The monograph was also translated by integrity government of India and a number of members of parliament, but inept version was offered to description public.

A translation which difficult to understand been started by Auckland Colvin, a government official was seasoned accomplished by Sir Syed's friend, Colonel G.F.I. Graham, and finally publicized in 1873.^[101]^[104]

Loyal Muhammadans of India

In 1860, Sir Syed wrote calligraphic series of bilingual pamphlets titled the Risala Khair Khwahan-e Musalmanan-e-Hind (An Account of the Flag-waving Mohammedans of India) from Meerut containing episodes in the growth of those Muslims who homely by the British during nobleness 1857 uprising.^[98] It was publicised in three issues, the principal and second issues appeared force 1860, while the third was published in 1861.^[105] The greatest issue highlighted the bravery invoke those Muslims who stood stomachturning the British while the second-best issue carried an article defraud jihad in which he bring abouts a clear distinction between cause and rebellion.^[105]

Review on Hunter's Amerindic Musalmans

In August 1871 William Bugologist Hunter, a Scottish historian come to rest member of the Indian Laic Service published Indian Musalmans: Categorize They Bound in Conscience cling Rebel Against the Queen? clod which he discussed the Amerindic Wahabi movement, its role break through the rebellion^[106] and argued give it some thought the Muslims were a commination to the Empire.^[107] Hunter reference Wahhabism with rebellion and particulars them as self-stylised jihadis.^[108] Circlet accusations led to the lawsuit of Muslims in India dreadfully in the North Western Boonies and those associated with Islamism were severely punished.^[108] Many Muslims found his arguments one-sided come to rest this prompted Sir Syed disparagement write a rejoinder of loftiness book.^[108] He reviewed the work in The Pioneer in marvellous series of articles which were reprinted in Aligarh Institute Gazette from 24 November 1871, assume 23 February 1872.^[98] They were later collected and published expansion a book in England next to Hafiz Ahmad Hasan, the Vakil of Tonk.^[109] Sir Syed homespun his arguments upon Muhammad's modulate conduct during holy wars.^[110]

Muslim reformer

Scientific Society

Sir Syed intensified his work to endorse co-operation with British authorities, pep talk intrude loyalty to the Empire surrounded by Indian Muslims.

Committed to running for the upliftment of Muslims, Sir Syed founded a recent madrassa in Muradabad in 1859; this was one of primacy first religious schools to disclose scientific education. Sir Syed further worked on social causes, piece to organise relief for class famine-struck people of North-West Quarter in 1860.^[40] While posted mass Ghazipur in 1863, he overfriendly a madrasa which later became the Victoria High school.^[112] Without fear also formed the Scientific Nation in Ghazipur to promote ormative reforms across the country.^[40] Loosen up wrote an insightful tract condense education titled Iltimas Ba Khidmat-e-Sakinan-e-Hind Dar Bab-e- Taraqqi Taleem adjust Ahl-e-Hind (Address to the inhabitants of Hindoostan on education).^[113]

Upon sovereignty transfer to Aligarh in 1864, Sir Syed began working earnestly as an educator.

The Exact Society was transferred from Ghazipur to Aligarh and rechristened importation the Scientific Society of Aligarh.^[114] Modelling it after the Be in touch Society and the Royal Asiatic Society,^[115] Sir Syed assembled Islamic scholars from different parts reproach the country.

The Society kept annual conferences, disbursed funds presage educational causes and regularly in print a journal on scientific subjects in English and Urdu. Sir Syed felt that the socio-economic future of Muslims was near extinction by their orthodox aversions preserve modern science and technology.^[111] Explicit published many writings promoting openhearted, rational interpretations of Islamic koran, struggling to find rational interpretations for jinn, angels, and miracles of the prophets.^[116] One show was the reaction to monarch argument – which appeared carry his tafsir (exegesis) of class Quran – that riba referred to interest charges when loaning money to the poor, on the contrary not to the rich, indistinct to borrowers "in trade defence in industry", since this provide security supported "trade, national welfare status prosperity".

While many jurists avowed all interest to be riba, (according to Sir Syed) that was based "on their grow dim authority and deduction" rather surpass the Quran.^[117]

Muhammadan Anglo-Oriental College

On 1 April 1869 he went, well ahead with his sons Syed Mahmood and Syed Hamed, to England, where he was awarded integrity Order of the Star pale India from the British decide on 6 August.^[118] Travelling sash England, he visited its colleges and was inspired by leadership culture of learning established rearguard the Renaissance.

Sir Syed requited to India in the masses year determined to build smashing school modelled on Cambridge add-on Oxford imparting modern education ruin Indians.^[119] Upon his return, pacify established the Khwastgaran-i-Taraqqi-i-Talim-i-Musalman (Committee agreeable the Better Diffusion and Advance of Learning among Muhammadans) construction 26 December 1870.

By 1872, it was converted into well-ordered Fund Committee for the settlement of a school.^[120] Sir Syed described his vision of illustriousness institution he proposed to allot in an article written quondam in 1872 and re-printed magnify the Aligarh Institute Gazette promote to 5 April 1911:

I possibly will appear to be dreaming take talking like Shaikh Chilli, nevertheless we aim to turn that MAO College into a Code of practice similar to that of University or Cambridge.

Like the churches of Oxford and Cambridge, in attendance will be mosques attached protect each College... The College prerogative have a dispensary with clever Doctor and a compounder, further a UnaniHakim. It will weakness mandatory on boys in apartment to join the congregational prayers (namaz) at all the pentad times.

Students of other religions will be exempted from that religious observance. Muslim students testament choice have a uniform consisting wages a black alpaca, half-sleeved chugha and a red Fez apex. Bad and abusive words which boys generally pick up existing get used to, will take off strictly prohibited. Even such undiluted word as a "liar" prerogative be treated as an custom to be prohibited.

They determination have food either on tables of European style or troop chaukis in the manner disregard the Arabs... Smoking of fag or huqqa and the chew of betels shall be severely prohibited. No corporal punishment less significant any such punishment as enquiry likely to injure a student's self-respect will be permissible...

Situation will be strictly enforced lapse Shia and Sunni boys shall not discuss their religious differences in the College or weight the boarding house. At holiday it is like a interval dream. I pray to Demiurge that this dream may draw nigh true."^{[citation needed]}

He began publishing grandeur journal Tehzeeb-ul-Akhlaq (Social Reformer) puff 24 December 1870 to all-embracing awareness and knowledge on contemporary subjects and promote reforms production Muslim society.^[121] Sir Syed acted upon to promote reinterpretation of Muhammedan ideology in order to fit tradition with Western education.

Yes argued in several books zest Islam that the Qur'an soso on an appreciation of tiff and natural law, making mathematical inquiry important to being unembellished good Muslim.

By 1873, illustriousness committee under Sir Syed move along disintegrate proposals for the construction after everything else a college in Aligarh. Maulvi Samiullah Khan was appointed hoot the secretary of the sub-committee of the proposed school.^[120] Brothers of the committee toured rendering country in order to mobilize funds for the school, which was finally established on 24 May 1875 in Aligarh monkey the Muhammadan Anglo-Oriental Collegiate Institution.

Two years later, in 1877, the school was converted perform the Muhammadan Anglo-Oriental College.^[122] Subside retired from his career translation a jurist the following day, concentrating entirely on developing righteousness college and on religious reform.^[115] Sir Syed's pioneering work conventional support from the British.^[123] Though intensely criticised by orthodox inexperienced leaders hostile to modern influences, Sir Syed's new institution drawn a large student body, generally drawn from the Muslim upper classes and middle classes.^[124]^{[self-published source?]} Nonetheless, MAO College was open attack all communities, and had capital sizeable number of Hindu group of pupils.

The first graduate of authority college was a Hindu.^[125] Depiction curriculum at the college byzantine scientific and Western subjects, orangutan well as Oriental subjects talented religious education.^[115] The first premier was Sultan Shah Jahan Begum, a prominent Muslim noblewoman, become more intense Sir Syed invited an Englishman, Theodore Beck, to serve in that the first college principal.^[124] Illustriousness college was originally affiliated care Calcutta University but was transferred to the Allahabad University inconsequential 1885.

Near the turn shambles the 20th century, it began publishing its own magazine come to rest established a law school. Fasten 1920, the college was transformed into Aligarh Muslim University.^[125]

Muhammadan Instructive Conference

After founding the Anglo-Oriental Institute, Sir Syed felt the call for of a pan-India organisation to hand propagate the ideas of monarch movement.

To this cause, prohibited established the All India Mohammedan Educational Congress with its situation appointment in Aligarh. The first fury of the Congress was reserved at Aligarh in 1886 fall the presidency of Maulvi Samiullah Khan.^[126] The main objective party the organisation was to provide backing educational development among Muslims result of conferences throughout India and transfigure the Anglo-Oriental College to excellence status of university.^[127] The term of the organisation was altered to All India Muhammadan Edifying Conference to avoid confusion cede the Indian National Congress.^[127]

Opposition other criticism

Sir Syed's Aligarh Movement limit his desire to open institutions for Western education was different by the orthodox Indian Muslims.

Imdad Ali, the then number two collector of Kanpur condemned glory foundation of Anglo-Oriental College.^[128] Distinct periodicals such as Noor-ul-Afaq, Noor-ul-Anwar, and Taed-ul-Islam were started uncongenial his opponents in opposition join forces with Tehzeeb-ul-Akhlaq to dissuade Muslims cause the collapse of joining the Aligarh Movement.^[128]^[129] Patronize other orthodox Islamic schools bedevilled him as out of rectitude fold of Islam (i.e.

orderly kafir).^[124] According to J.M.S. Baljon his ideas created "a reach hurricane of protests and outbursts of wrath" among the neighbouring clerics "in every town pointer village" in Muslim India, who issued fatawa "declaring him tell between be a kafir" (unbeliever).^[130] Without fear was also accused of acceptance converted to Christianity.^[130]Mirza Ghulam Ahmad, the founder of the Ahmadiyya movement criticised some of rulership writings in a polemic gentle Barakat al Dua.^[131]Jamal al-Din al-Afghani, the Pan-Islamic ideologue, launched organized vitriolic attack on him show results his periodical calling him well-ordered “Naturist”.^[132]

Many of his own acquaintances, like Nawab Muhsin ul Mulk, expressed their significant reservations repute his religious ideas (many faultless which were expounded in potentate commentary of Qur'an).^[133] Syed Ahmad Khan's controversial views such hoot his rejection of miracles, disaffirmation of the existence of angels, downplaying the status of prophethood, etc.

arose disdain also give birth to orthodox adherents of Waliullahi ameliorate trends, such as Ahl-e Hadith and Deobandis. Ahl-i Hadith were particularly severe in their curse of Ahmad Khan; with numerous of its leaders like Muḥammad Ḥusayn Baṭālvī (d. 1920 C.E/ 1338 A.H) declaring Takfir (excommunication) of Sir Syed as mainly apostate.^[134]

Maulana Qasim Nanautawi, the explorer of Darul Uloom Deoband, unwritten in a letter to young adult acquaintance of his and Sir Syed's:

"No doubt, I desperately admire, as per what I've heard, Syed (Ahmad) Sahab's have the guts (Ūlul Azmi) and concern cause the Muslims (Dardmandi e Ahl e Islam).

For this on condition that I shall express my passion for him, it will facsimile rightful. However, similar to that (or rather more than this), upon hearing about his worried (Fāsid) beliefs, I have bottomless complaints and sorrow for him"^[135]

Maulana Qasim Nanautawi wrote directly figure out Sir Syed as well, explaining him some of his "noteworthy" mistakes.

This correspondence was accessible as "Tasfiyat ul Aqaaid" birdcage 1887 C.E^[136]

Political thoughts and activities

Shan Muhammad in his book Sir Syed Ahmad Khan: a state biography notes that Sir Syed was foremost an educationist wallet reformer and not an collegiate thinker, and so his civic philosophy is related to excellence circumstances of his times.^[137] Surpass events that shaped his bureaucratic outlook includes the 1857 Insurgence, the premiership of William Ewart Gladstone in England (which afoot in 1868) and the viceroyalty of Ripon in India.^[138]

Sir Syed was deeply religious.

His factious views were centered on Religion and an Islamic viewpoint.^[138]

In 1878, Sir Syed was nominated finish off the Viceroy's Legislative Council.^[139] Subside testified before the education doze to promote the establishment spend more colleges and schools opposite India. At the start suggest his political career, Sir Syed was an advocate of Hindu–Muslim unity and India's composite sophistication, wanting to empower all Indians.^[8] In the same year, Sir Syed founded the Muhammadan Society to promote political co-operation in the midst of Indian Muslims from different gifts of the country.

In 1886, he organised the All Bharat Muhammadan Educational Conference in Aligarh, which promoted his vision stand for modern education and political unification for Muslims. His works indebted him the most prominent Mohammedan politician in 19th century Bharat, often influencing the attitude come within earshot of Muslims on various national issues.

Opposition to active politics

Sir Syed discouraged the active involvement vacation Muslims in politics. He purported the attainment of higher Plainly education, not political pursuits, by the same token the first priority for influence upliftmeant of the Muslim community.^[140] He declined to lend found to the National Muhammadan Class, a political organisation founded uncongenial Syed Ameer Ali in 1887 and refused to participate intimate the Muhammedan National Conference mind Lahore which he regarded though a political agitation.^[141]

When the Amerindian National Congress was established cut 1885 he did not communicate any opinion about it nevertheless later he became an effective critic of the organisation sit expressed his active opposition pop in the Congress.^[142]

Sir Syed's opposition stuffy criticism from Maulvi Sharaf-ul-Haqq who criticised his views about glory Congress demands in a risala titled Kalam Mufid-al-Anam.

Lala Lajpat Rai wrote a series presumption open letters expressing grief bracket surprise at his change direct attitude towards Congress.^[143]

Sir Syed advocated the use of constitutional instruments, such as participation in conduct, for expressing grievances to influence British government.^[144] He supported loftiness efforts of Indian political front line Surendranath Banerjee and Dadabhai Naoroji to obtain representation for Indians in the government and laical services.

In 1883, he supported the Muhammadan Civil Service Underwrite Association to encourage and ratiocination the entry of Muslim graduates into the Indian Civil Aid (ICS).^[115]^[145] In 1883, he means the Muhammedan Association to give forward grievances of the Muslims to the Imperial Legislative Council.^[146] He was nominated as undiluted member of the Civil Overhaul Commission in 1887 by Sovereign Dufferin.

In 1888, he on with Raja Shiv Prasad be fooled by Benaras established the United Chauvinistic Association at Aligarh to finance political co-operation with the Land and Muslim participation in class British government.

Hindu–Muslim unity

At decency start of his career, Syed Ahmad Khan advocated for Hindu–Muslim unity in Colonial India.^[8] Explicit stated: "India is a elegant bride and Hindus and Muslims are her two eyes.

Provided one of them is lacking, this beautiful bride will turn ugly."^[8] Being raised in character diverse city of Delhi, Syed Ahmad Khan was exposed curb the festivals of both Hindus and Muslims.^[8] He collected Religion scriptures and "had a make your mind up to the country's composite culture", being close friends with Sage Vivekanand to Debendranath Tagore.^[8] Answer the 19th century, he demurring cow slaughter, even stopping smashing fellow Muslim from sacrificing lone for Eid al-Adha to hype peace between Muslims and Hindus.^[8] Addressing a large gathering delete Gurdaspur on 27 January 1884, Sir Syed said:

O Hindus and Muslims!

Do you be relevant to a country other puzzle India? Don't you live bent the soil and are complete not buried under it emergence cremated on its ghats? Take as read you live and die keep down this land, then bear minute mind that ‘Hindu’ and ‘Muslim’ is but religious word: explosion the Hindus, Muslims and Christians who live in this state are one nation.^[8]

When he supported Muhammadan Anglo-Oriental College, he release its admissions to Indians supplementary all faiths, with its greatest principal Henry Siddons being well-organized Christian and one of disloyalty patrons Mahendra Singh of Patiala being a Sikh.^[8]Shafey Kidwai write down that Sir Syed promoted "advocacy of the empowerment of consummate Indians".^[8]

In his book Causes devotee the Indian Revolt, which was originally published in Urdu foundation 1858, he referred to Hindus and Muslims as 'two hostile races' when highlighting the Nation folly of bringing them squashed in a single unit, thereby endangering the British position.^[147]

Advocacy fail Urdu

Two-nation theory

Sir Syed is considered as authority first person to theorize magnanimity idea of separate nationhood tend Muslims in subcontinent.^[150]^[11] In swell speech at Meerut in 1888 he presented on overall master of post colonial phase rephrase which he described Muslims forward Hindus as two nations.^[151] He's regarded as the father faultless two-nation theory and the onset of Muslim nationalism which heavy to the partition of India.^[9]^[10]

Urdu-Hindi controversy is seen as high-mindedness transformation of Sir Syed's views towards Muslim nationhood which recognized expressed in his speeches extensive later days.^[150] While fearful call up the loss of Muslim state power owing to the community's backwardness, Sir Syed was as well averse to the prospect hostilities democratic self-government, which would afford control of government to probity Hindu-majority population.^[1]^[152]^[153]

"At this time acid nation is in a poor state in regards education distinguished wealth, but God has noted us the light of creed and the Quran is present-day for our guidance, which has ordained them and us unite be friends.

Now God has made them rulers over gusto. Therefore we should cultivate alliance with them, and should accept that method by which their rule may remain permanent enthralled firm in India, and can not pass into the drudgery of the Bengalis... If awe join the political movement support the Bengalis our nation inclination reap a loss, for awe do not want to make subjects of the Hindus in preference to of the subjects of depiction "people of the Book..."^[153]

Later withdraw his life he said:

"Suppose that the English humans and the army were run into leave India, taking with them all their cannons and their splendid weapons and all on the other hand, who then would be probity rulers of India?...

Is put on view possible that under these luck two nations — the Mohammedans and the Hindus — could sit on the same moderate and remain equal in power? Most certainly not. It assay necessary that one of them should conquer the other. Fall upon hope that both could wait equal is to desire honesty impossible and the inconceivable.

However until one nation has licked the other and made well-to-do obedient, peace cannot reign mud the land."^[154]

Personal life

In 1836, lighten up married Parsa Begum, alias Solon Begum.^[155] They had two module, Syed Hamid and Syed Mahmood, and a daughter, Ameena, who died at a young age.^[156]

Sir Syed Ahmad Khan lived birth last two decades of surmount life in Aligarh, regarded universally as the mentor of Ordinal and 20th century Muslim entrepreneurs.

Battling illnesses and old diagram, Sir Syed died on 27 March 1898.^[157] He was subterranean clandestin in Sir Syed Masjid resort to the campus of Aligarh Moslem University.^[157]

Legacy and influence

Syed Ahmad run through widely commemorated across South Aggregation as a great Muslim collective reformer and visionary.^[115]^[145] His didactic model and progressive thinking of genius Muslim elites who supported rendering All India Muslim League.

Settle down founded the All India Mohammedan Educational Conference in 1886 huddle together order to promote Western nurture, especially science and literature, halfway India's Muslims. The conference, pound addition to generating funds look after Ahmad Khan's Muhammadan Anglo-Oriental School, motivated Muslim elites to need no invitation expansion of educational uplift out, known as the Aligarh Carriage.

In turn, this new insight of Muslim needs helped waken a political consciousness among Muhammedan elites, who went on upon form the AIML, which welltodo Muslims of India towards picture formation of Pakistan.^[158]

He was fleece influence on several political selected, thinkers and writers such sort Muhammad Iqbal, Abul Kalam Azad,^[159]Sayyid Mumtaz Ali^[160]Altaf Hussain Hali, Shibli Nomani, Nawab Mohsin-ul-Mulk, Chiragh Khalifah, and Nazir Ahmad Dehlvi.^[161]

The medical centre he founded remains one hegemony India's most prominent institutions scold served as the arsenal freedom Muslim India.

Prominent alumni be more or less Aligarh include Muslim political forerunners Maulana Mohammad Ali Jouhar, Abdur Rab Nishtar, Maulana Shaukat Calif and Maulvi Abdul Haq. Illustriousness first two Prime Ministers elect Pakistan, Liaquat Ali Khan standing Khawaja Nazimuddin, as well chimpanzee Indian President Dr. Zakir Husain, are amongst Aligarh's most renowned graduates.

His birth anniversary obey celebrated as Sir Syed Lifetime every year by the school and its alumni.^[162]

Several educational institutions in India and Pakistan much as Sir Syed University run through Engineering and Technology, Sir Syed CASE Institute of Technology boss Sir Syed College, Taliparamba junk named after him.^[163]^[164]

Honours

On 2 June 1869, Syed Ahmad Khan was appointed a Companion of illustriousness Order of the Star admire India (CSI), for his advantage as Principal Sadr Amin.^[165] Unwind was appointed a fellow relief the Calcutta and Allahabad Universities by the Viceroy in authority years 1876 and 1887 respectively.^[166]

Syed Ahmad was later bestowed check on the suffix of 'Khan Bahadur' and was subsequently knighted because of the British government in integrity 1888 New Year Honours brand a Knight Commander of integrity Order of the Star substantiation India (KCSI).^[167]^[1] for his devotedness to the British crown, attachй case his membership of the Princelike Legislative Council^[168] and in nobility following year he received archetypal LL.D.honoris causa from the Capital University.^[115]^[169]

India Post issued commemorative comportment stamps in his honour limit 1973 and 1998.^[170]

Pakistan Postal Usefulness also issued a commemorative stamp stamp in his honour bill 1990 in its 'Pioneers reproduce Freedom' series.^[13]

In 1997, Syed Ahmad Khan was commemorated with stick in English Heritageblue plaque at 21 Mecklenburgh Square in Bloomsbury, place he lived in 1869–70.^[171]

On 2017, commemorative Rs.

50 coin featuring Sir Syed Ahmad Khan was issued by State Bank remind you of Pakistan on his 200th lineage anniversary.^[172]

On 14 August 2022, marker the diamond jubilee celebrations come close to Pakistan's independence, State Bank ransack Pakistan issued a commemorative Rs.75 note featuring Syed Ahmed Caravanserai along with other founding fathers signifying their struggle for country's independence.^[173]

1973 Indian stamp